Himalayan Management

A hamlet or village was the operational management unit for water management. Distribution of irrigation water and responsibilities of maintenance of tank/ channels among households were decided by a selected group of elders constituting the 'Pani Panchayat (Water Council)'. Usually, a group of 3-4 households is identified for repairing canals in the face breeches or obstruction to water flow due to accumulation of stones in the stretches lying outside private farmlands.

Management Features:

Goals :   

Water from rain fed small rivers called Gaad or rivulets called Gadhera is diverted to agricultural fields through a network of channels enabling flow along gravity. Points of stable perennial flow are identified on the natural course.

Choyas:

 Tiny seasonal seepages, very close to farm fields discharging water insufficient for canalization are called Choyas. The flow is diverted towards a terrace.

Economic Needs:

Mountain ecosystem services provide both direct and indirect contributions to mountain and downstream livelihoods and the economy. In terms of direct contributions, mountains provide a large share of the world's resources for mining, forestry, water for drinking and irrigation, and hydropower, and they generate an increasing amount of wind power as well. Mountain products and services form the basis for many economic sectors – food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics; agriculture, forestry, and range land production; hydropower generation; tourism; and others. Mountain rangeland and forests provide economic benefits to local people and global communities through medicinal plants, nuts, fruits, timber, fuel wood, and minerals. A recent study shows that forest biodiversity in the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area of Nepal provides more than a billion dollar's worth of income to local people. Timber, non-timber forest products, medicinal plants, fodder, and litter accounted for about 70% of the total household income, and each hectare of land fetched more than US$ 400 per annum (Pant et al.2011).

Globally, the total value of ecosystem services is estimated at US$ 33 trillion per year, almost double the global gross domestic product (GDP) (Costanza et al. 1997). However, few studies have looked at the value of ecosystem goods and services in the mountain context. Based on Costanza et al.'s (1997) approach, Singh (2007) estimated the total value of forest ecosystem services in Uttarakhand, India to be US$ 2.4 billion per year (Table 4). The food production and raw materials that have market values constitute only a small proportion (18.7%) of the total value. Similarly, Verma (2000) estimates the value of direct consumptive benefits from Himanchal Pradesh forests at about 1% of total benefits, while the value of indirect benefits from their ecosystem services counts for nearly 93%. The remaining 6% is from indirect consumptive benefits, e.g., tourism.

Sustainability In Lapland

What was the short term gain?

Money from tourists coming to the area and the option to create more infrastructures to be able to sustain more and more tourists each year

What management strategy is being used?

Tourism in Lapland is based primarily on the region's clean and unique nature. Nature has been protected more extensively in Lapland than in other parts of the country. This is an opportunity and richness for tourism provided that protected areas can be and are used for tourism in a sustainable way.

They have started controlling the way in which the tourists interact with the land and the local communities and their objectives have been outlines below:

·         to ensure that the water supply systems of the main tourist resorts in Lapland meet modern requirements by 2007 (This means that there is less water waste)

·         to complete the environmental restoration projects at the tourist resorts by 2007 (To update everything to the most efficient economically and also to use less fuel)

·         to continue to use employment schemes (160 person-years) extensively to carry out work promoting tourism and improving the natural environments

·         to promote the use of protected areas in tourism

·         to encourage the sustainable development of resorts

How does it meet socio economic needs?

A lot of money is still being generated by the ever increasing amount of tourists coming to Lapland to come and see 'Father Christmas' This creates jobs for people in the local communities surrounding areas, e.g. working in a hotel or pretending to be Father Christmas. The money also increases the life style and standard of living for the people affected as a lot more money is being injected into the economy from outside tourists.

How does it meet environmental needs?

All of the dedicated tourist areas have been carefully set up as to make sure that each of them have the most up to date machinery, for example fuel efficient vehicles. Also other aspects have been taken into consideration for example noise pollution and light pollution, where bans have been put in place to make sure that tourists treat the area with care and respect. Here is a quote from a tourist website:

"Mother Nature is our main partner in production and we do all in our power to take good care of her. At this moment over 50% of our snowmobile fleet is equipped with 4-stroke engines which are more environmental friendly than the 2-stroke"

'White mountain, Green tourism'

Chamonix a French alpine town attracts 60000 people a year; this is due to its 4810 high altitude. During summer as well tourists visit here to take part in climbing hiking etc. these tourists swell the population to 100000 this creates economic benefits as well as jobs in this area. Due to the damage being caused in the environment the authorities have taken action. A cross border sustainable-development initiative has introduced recycling points around the valley.  Tourists are educated in not dropping rubbish. Claire Burente says 'educating people and increasing public awareness can easily reduce damages to the societies. The deputy mayor is aiming to reduce emissions to ¼ of current levels by 2050. Other ideas including cutting transport emissions by 80%

http://www.geographical.co.uk/Magazine/Chamonix_-_Oct_09.html

Pebble mining in Alaska

Good source of info for opportunities and problems in cold environments. bit word heavy but good
http://www.cntraveler.com/ecotourism/2012/05/bristol-bay-alaska-environment-salmon-wildlife-poltics

The Ice Hotel in Nothern Sweden - Thurston, Axon, Skirrow

http://www.discoveringthearctic.org.uk/5_ice_hotel.html

Niger Delta - B Thrasher

Niger Delta - P Ramsbotham

Niger Delta - H Mok

Niger Delta - D Hart

Niger delta - O Wetton

Niger Delta - O Lyons

Niger Delta - A Axon

Niger Delta - C Thurston

Niger Delta - G Cox

Blogging task 2

Create a Storify for the Issue of Oil extraction in the Niger Delta. You will need to create a storify account using your school email address.

Maintain the bias of the Ogoni people, the Government or Shell. As you were in the debate.

Include, images, maps, video, news, social media etc

Email the embed code of your storify in slideshow format to the blog email address by Monday 21st January.

See TWR's example below:

The Emperor Penguin

Adaptations:

·         The emperor penguin is large, so that the surface area:volume ratio is less, meaning that there is less relative are for heat to be lost

·         When it gets very cold, penguins can puff their feathers out to trap more air for even better insulation. When it gets too hot they fluff their feathers out even more so that the trapped warm air can escape and enable the penguin to cool down.

·         Penguins rely mostly on a thin layer of fat beneath their skin to keep warm on land

·         Emperor penguins have developed a social behaviour that when it gets cold, they huddle together in groups that may comprise several thousand penguins. That way for most of the group, where their feathers end, instead of all of them having to face the cold wind and general low temperatures, most of them have another warm penguin blanket to shield them instead. The surface area of the group is greatly reduced and a great deal of warmth and body fat conserved

Where they're found:

• The Emperor penguins habitat is limited to the Antarctic and the surrounding sea, and unlike many other penguin species the Emperor penguins can rarely be found anywhere else in the world

Canada Lynx

Canada Lynx (lynx canadensis)

The canada Lynx is found in Canada and alaska, on mostly thick snowy terrain. The climate of the area is mostly; Cold, snowy, very few prey, deep thick snow all over. The canada lynx has adapted in many ways, it uses thick fur that changes colour during seasons in order to keep itself warm, during summer the fur changes from silvery white to reddish brown in order to absorb more of the solar heat. Another adaptation of the lynx is the wide paws, these have adapted to become large and spread out to help the lynx move through the thick snow without sinking into it. Another adaptation of the lynx is within it's teeth, they have nerves within their canines which enables them to feel where they've struck their prey as well as when the prey is dead, this enables their hunting to become more efficient, this process comes into use especialy on the Snowshoe hares.

Adaptation of Ptarmigans

Ptarmigans are birds that live in the Arctic all year. They change the colour of their feathers from brown in the spring to white during the winter. This change protects them from predators because they blend into the natural surroundings. They have water-repellent outer feathers in addition to inner feathers to stay warm during the cold months. They also grow feathers on the soles of their feet to keep them warm. They act as snowshoes to prevent them from sinking in the snow. Another way they stay warm is to dive into large piles of snow, where the snow acts as a blanket and traps heat from the ground.

Beluga Whale

Beluga whales are found in the Arctic Ocean and its adjoining seas. Also called white whales, belugas can blend into icy environments thanks to their trademark color. Unlike most whales, belugas don't have dorsal fins. Experts think this adaptation helps them to preserve body heat by reducing the animals' surface area; it also allows them to swim deftly under extensive ice sheets.

Belugas swim in freezing waters, so it's no coincidence that they have the greatest percentage of blubber of any whale. They also have an echolocation organ, called the melon, at the front of their head. Along with hunting and navigating, it helps them find breathing holes in the ice.

The Arctic Hare

Arctic Hare

The Arctic hare lives throughout the tundra of Canada from Newfoundland to Nunavut and the Northwest Territories.

Food- The main food for the Arctic hare is woody plants. It will eat mosses, lichens, buds, berries, leaves, seaweed, bark, willow twigs and roots.

Adaptations- The claws on the front feet of the Arctic hare are long. The strong claws are used for digging in hard-packed snow. Their feet are thickly padded with fur

The Arctic hare's coat grows longer and thicker for the winter. They have a short thick undercoat protected by a longer top coat. The white fur makes the hare difficult to spot in the snow. It has small ears which lose less body heat than larger ears. To keep warm and conserve energy, a hare will tuck in its tail, paws and ears and sit still for hours.

Hares will form large groups. While some rest and feed the others act as guards. They gather together in the snow, under bushes or behind rocks. They also dig tunnels (dens) in the snow.

When alarmed they rise up on their hind legs to look for danger and then bound off very quickly . Hopping up on their hind legs like a kangaroo, they can reach speeds of 64 km. per hour. The hare can swim across narrow streams.

The Alaska Blackfish

The Alaska Blackfish:Dallia pectoralis
Once thought to be an herbivore, its primary diet is midges and mosquito insect larvae. Alaska blackfish are found in swamps, ponds, lakes, and streams with vegetation for cover, in tundra and forested locations not far inland. Their range includes Alaska and the Bering Seaislands.

Most living things are made up of 70% water. When water freezes, it expands and forms ice crystals. Repeated freezing and thawing can destroy living tissue.
The Alaska blackfish overcomes this problem by producing chemicals within its body that lowers the freezing temperature of cell fluids. Much like the antifreeze we add to the water in our vehicles, the "antifreeze" of the Alaska blackfish prevents the formation of large ice crystals within its cells, even at low temperatures.
 The Alaska blackfish can survive temperatures of-20 degrees C (4 F) and the complete freezing of some body parts, including their heads, for up to several days

By P.Ramsbotham

Wolverine (Gulo gulo)

The Wolverines are the largest land dwelling member of the weasel family. They almost look like small bears with brown hair and yellowish stripes on their sides. They are found in arctic and alpine regions of the north including Canada, Siberia, Alaska, and Russia. These areas are extremely cold in the winter and there is only a short period of warm summer every year. 

Wolverine has many special adaptations that allow it to survive in its northern climate. It has long fur that is resistant to freezing and does not retain water, so that they can keep warm in its cold environment. Moreover, it's legs are so strong with relatively large feet in comparison to its body allowing it to walk on top of the snow. Its semi retractable claws enable them to hunt, as well as digging and climbing. The Wolverine can also give off an unpleasant odor when danger is detected. It also has special teeth, which is rotated 90 degrees and perfect for ripping meat off of a carcass that has been frozen solid and crushing bones to get at the marrow. It gives the Wolverine an advantage as other predators may not be able to eat such a carcass.

Wolverines are omnivores, they usually prey small animals such as rabbits and rodents, but they do eat a bit of vegetarian fare. Sometimes, they would even bring down animal that is five times its size. During winter, they would dig into burrows and eat hibernating mammals, or look for  frozen carcasses.

Short Moss Turf

Found most frequently in sandy and gravelly soils. Mosses, gather in colonies which make them possible to collect and retain more water. They also lose less by evaporation and show a marked ability to use water rapidly whenever it becomes available. Mosses have also become well adapted to the almost continuous light during the long days of a polar summer. Short Moss turf produces more energy by photosynthesis in low light at 5°C than it does at 15°C, or higher. Photosynthesis can start within a few hours of thawing after a prolonged period of freezing, and almost immediately following short periods.

The Muskox

The Muskox
The Muskox known as the Oomingmak to the Alaskan natives, are huge. The word Oomingmak means "the animal with skin like a beard" to the natives (Inupiaq speaking Eskimos). It grows to around 5ft in height and can weigh up to 900lbs.
The brown shaggy, silk fur is its main adaption to surviving in the cold environments as their extraordinary fur coat covers their whole body even the udder. The muskox coat and hooves keep them warm in the cold arctic weather which can reach –70ºF. The muskox has two kinds of fur, an outer fur which is coarse and stiff; then an under fur which is soft and able to keep the muskox very warm. The fur of the muskox is 3-4 inches thick. Even the young calves are able to survive by themselves when the temperatures get down to -30ºF.. They were almost extinct due to poaching, as there fur is regarded as one of the warmest in the world as its 8x warmer than wool and lighter than cashmere.
It's found in the Northern Tundra Areas (northern Alaska, Canada, Ellesmere Island and Greenland) and the Nunivak Island in Alaska. They try to live near a river in the tundra environment if possible as one of there foods can be found close by (the willow plant).

The Musk Ox

The Muskox
The Muskox known as the Oomingmak to the Alaskan natives, are huge. The word Oomingmak means "the animal with skin like a beard" to the natives (Inupiaq speaking Eskimos). It grows to around 5ft in height and can weigh up to 900lbs.
The brown shaggy, silk fur is its main adaption to surviving in the cold environments as their extraordinary fur coat covers their whole body even the udder. The muskox coat and hooves keep them warm in the cold arctic weather which can reach –70ºF. The muskox has two kinds of fur, an outer fur which is coarse and stiff; then an under fur which is soft and able to keep the muskox very warm. The fur of the muskox is 3-4 inches thick. Even the young calves are able to survive by themselves when the temperatures get down to -30ºF.. They were almost extinct due to poaching, as there fur is regarded as one of the warmest in the world as its 8x warmer than wool and lighter than cashmere.
It's found in the Northern Tundra Areas (northern Alaska, Canada, Ellesmere Island and Greenland) and the Nunivak Island in Alaska. They try to live near a river in the tundra environment if possible as one of there foods can be found close by (the willow plant).

Musk Ox (Ovibus moschatus)

Located: It can be found in various locations throughout northern Canada, Greenland, Alaska, Norway, Sweden and Russia.  At one point they were eradicated in Alaska, Norway, Sweden and Russia, but have since been successfully re-introduced to some areas in those countries.

Diet: They are vegetarian and will eat much of the vegetation that is available in the tundra.  This includes willow shoots, lichens, grasses and shrubs.    

Habitat: They are roaming animals that live in herds.  A herd will often remain in a certain range where it will have access to food and water, and will roam within that range throughout the seasons to locate those resources.     

Size and Description: They can reach lengths between 6 and 7.5 feet and have a shoulder height between 4 and 5 feet.  Their weight can vary from 400 to 900 pounds.  They have an outer coat made of long, brown hairs and an inner coat called qiviut which consists of wool.  This is a special adaptation that helps the musk ox survive the freezing temperatures of the tundra.  Males and females have horns that meet near the centre of the skull.  Males will grow an additional "boss" across the horns.  They have glands that produce a strong, musky odour that gives the Ox its name.          

Reproduction: The rut or mating season for them begins in late summer and early fall.  Males will compete for dominance over a harem of females, and a single male will mate with several females.  The gestation or pregnancy period will then last approximately 8 months and the female will give birth to one calf in the spring.  

Musk ox

Musk Ox (Ovibus moschatus)

Located: It can be found in various locations throughout northern Canada, Greenland, Alaska, Norway, Sweden and Russia.  At one point they were eradicated in Alaska, Norway, Sweden and Russia, but have since been successfully re-introduced to some areas in those countries.

Diet: They are vegetarian and will eat much of the vegetation that is available in the tundra.  This includes willow shoots, lichens, grasses and shrubs.    

Habitat: They are roaming animals that live in herds.  A herd will often remain in a certain range where it will have access to food and water, and will roam within that range throughout the seasons to locate those resources.     

Size and Description: They can reach lengths between 6 and 7.5 feet and have a shoulder height between 4 and 5 feet.  Their weight can vary from 400 to 900 pounds.  They have an outer coat made of long, brown hairs and an inner coat called qiviut which consists of wool.  This is a special adaptation that helps the musk ox survive the freezing temperatures of the tundra.  Males and females have horns that meet near the centre of the skull.  Males will grow an additional "boss" across the horns.  They have glands that produce a strong, musky odour that gives the Ox its name.          

Reproduction: The rut or mating season for them begins in late summer and early fall.  Males will compete for dominance over a harem of females, and a single male will mate with several females.  The gestation or pregnancy period will then last approximately 8 months and the female will give birth to one calf in the spring.  

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Rock Ptarmigan

 

Location - The rock ptarmigan can be found in many areas in the north of the Arctic Circle, including countries such as Russia and Sweden.

 

Habitat - Rock ptarmigans can often be found in elevated, rocky, sloped areas of the tundra. Females and chicks may prefer areas with brush to protect them from predators, while males may prefer open, barren areas to assist them in locating predators and other ptarmigans.        

 

Adaptions

Rock ptarmigans may malt several times a year and will change colours when it does so.  During the summer months, they will have a spotted brown colour. To fit in with the tundra background.

In the winter both sexes shed their brown feathers for an almost pure white coat. 

The legs of these birds are completely feathered to help keep them warm and help them walk on the snow. These birds can commence a full upward flight from a seating position.

The black stripe diagonally from the eyes, act as a goggle for these birds and prevent them from snow blindness, by minimizing the impacts of sun's reflection on the snow.

These birds can burrow themselves in the snow to avoid the cold winters and their predators.

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Arctic Fox

The Arctic fox (the white fox)

The arctic fox (White fox or Snow fox) is a small fox that is native to the arctic regions of the northern Hemisphere. It has many adaptations to cope with the climate in which it lives.

The arctic fox's fur can be grey/blue or white in the winter so that it blends into the landscape. Its coat then changes from grey/blue to a charcoal colour and from white to a brown colour as summer begins. This is so that they are still camouflaged when the snow melts. They need to be camouflaged so prey and predators cannot see them as well.

They have adapted in many ways to cope with the sub-zero temperatures of their climate. It has the warmest fur of any mammal which is even warmer than the polar bear and arctic wolf. Their fur is also oily, which helps to trap in some of the heat and waterproof the fox.

Arctic wolves also have a compact body with short legs, short ears, dense fur, and thickly haired foot pads. Therefore the less surface area is exposed to the cold, less heat escapes the body. These not only help to insulate against the cold, but provide grip on the ice as well.

Tundra Bumble Bee:

Tundra bumble bees have developed a dense hair on their bodies which slows heat loss to the air. They also "shiver" their flight muscles to generate heat. This heat is temporarily trapped within their velvet coat. Some bumblebees can keep, their body temperatures 20-30, degrees C (68-86 degrees F) above air temperatures and are easily active while other insects are too cold to move. They have a thicker coat of "hair" than temperate bee; "shivers" its large wing muscles to raise its body temperature, rely on nectar & pollen to survive. the Arctic Bumblebee(Bombus polaris) is exquisitely adapted to life in the northern latitudes—where life in turn is often exquisitely adapted to this bushy brightly-colored bee. These Bumblebees favour living in the higher latitudes of the Artic- where their body functions work best. 

seals and whales

Seals and Whales

These mammals have many of the same adaptations as penguins which reduce the effect of the cold. They spend the winter in the sea, only coming up for air. Their large round bodies have a small surface area to volume ratio, minimising heat loss. Seals have a thick layer of blubber for insulation and small extremities. In summer they come onto shore and ice floes to bask in the sun and to prey on penguins.

All the whales found in Antarctic waters migrate north to escape the harsh winter when krill is unavailable.

 

Blogging task Number 1

Task number 1 is to research an animal or plant that has adapted to life in a cold environment. You must write 100 words on:

Its habitat: Location and type of terrain
The climate in that area
The main adaptations it has and why they are useful in that climate

Deadline: Saturday 12th January